Person:

Snow, Catherine

This study investigated predictors of growth in toddlers’ vocabulary production between the ages of 1 and 3 years by analyzing mother – child communication in 108 low-income families. Individual growth modeling was used to describe patterns of growth in children’s observed vocabulary production and predictors of initial status and between-person change. Results indicate large variation in growth across children. Observed variation was positively related to diversity of maternal lexical input and maternal language and literacy skills, and negatively related to maternal depression. Maternal talkativeness was not related to growth in children’s vocabulary production in this sample. Implications of the examination of longitudinal data from this relatively large sample of low-income families are discussed.

Advanced literacy is a prerequisite to adult success in the twenty-first century, By advanced literacy we do not mean simply the ability to decode words or read a text, as necessary as these elementary skills are, Instead we mean the ability to use reading to gain access to the world of knowledge, to synthesize information from different sources, to evaluate arguments, and to learn totally new subjects, These higher-level skills are now essential to young Americans who wish to explore fields as disparate as history, science, and mathematics; to succeed in postsecondary education, whether vocational or academic; to earn a decent living in the knowledge-based globalized labor market; and to participate in a democracy facing complex problems,

The literacy challenge confronting children, their families, and schools in the United States has two parts. The first is the universal need to better prepare students for twenty-first-century literacy demands. The second is the specific need to reduce the disparities in literacy outcomes between children from disadvantaged backgrounds and those from more privileged homes.

This issue of the Future of Children explores the literacy of America's children and how to improve it. We begin this introductory essay by reviewing briefly why literacy is so important in today's world and why the concept of literacy needs to be broadened to include a set of competencies that go well beyond the ability to recognize words and decode text. We end with a summary of the other articles in the issue and briefly consider what steps policy makers might take to respond to the urgent needs we cite

How does literacy develop in children’s early years, and what programs or practices promote adequate literacy for all children? These are the questions Catherine Snow and Timothy Matthews tackle in this article.

Fundamental literacy skills can be grouped into two categories, Snow and Matthews write. The first category is constrained skills, which are readily teachable because they’re finite: for example, the 26 letters of the alphabet, or a set of 20 to 30 common spelling rules. These skills have a ceiling; young children can and do achieve perfect performance.

As they grow older, though, children need to understand words rarely encountered in spoken language and to integrate new information they encounter with relevant background information. Vocabulary and background knowledge are examples of unconstrained skills—large domains of knowledge acquired gradually through experience. Unconstrained skills are particularly important for children’s long-term literacy success (that is, success in outcomes measured after third grade). Compared to constrained skills, they’re also more strongly predicted by children’s social class or their parents’ education, and more difficult to teach in the classroom. And because of their open-ended nature, unconstrained skills are also much harder to test for. Snow and Matthews write that a drop in literacy scores we see as US children move from elementary to middle school suggests that our schools may be focusing too much on constrained skills—and too little on unconstrained ones—in the early grades.

The authors review promising programs and practices for enhancing both constrained and unconstrained skills, ranging from comprehensive school-improvement programs to efforts to improve curricula and teachers’ professional development—although they note that vast differences in programs’ scope, cost, targets, and theories of change make comparing them difficult. Another challenge is that it’s hard to maintain quality and consistency when implementing complex programs over time. Snow and Matthews suggest that to improve young children’s success with literacy, it might be better to introduce and evaluate promising practices that can be mixed and matched, rather than complex programs that are implemented as a package.

En este artículo se investigan algunas cuestiones metodológicas relativas al estudio del lenguaje infantil y se presenta la instrumentación y el software desarrollados en el proyecto CHILDES (Sistema de Intercambio de Datos del Lenguaje Infantil). El sistema proporciona potentes herramientas para investigar en el marco de la metodología de Registro, Transcripción y Análisis de Muestras de Habla Espontánea (RETAMHE). Se proporciona información del sistema de codificación (CHAT) que permite introducir finas distinciones en el proceso de transcripción, al tiempo que se exponen los requerimientos básicos (minCHAT) para crear archivos CHAT. El paquete de programas (CLAN) específicamente diseñados para analizar esos archivos que contienen transcripciones de muestras de habla, incluye recuentos de frecuencias, búsqueda de palabras, análisis de la interacción, etc. El núcleo de comandos y opciones de CLAN constituye el sistema minCLAN, del que se ofrecen algunas pautas. Se trata con todo ello de facilitar los primeros pasos para aprender a usar los instrumentos metodológicos de CHILDES.

A new measure of reading comprehension, the Diagnostic Assessment of Reading Comprehension (DARC), designed to reflect central comprehension processes while minimizing decoding and language demands, was pilot tested. We conducted three pilot studies to assess the DARC’s feasibility, reliability, comparability across Spanish and English, developmental sensitivity, and relation to standardized measures. The first study, carried out with 16 second‐through sixth‐grade English language learners, showed that the DARC items were at the appropriate reading level. The second pilot study, with 28 native Spanish‐speaking fourth graders who had scored poorly on the Woodcock‐Johnson Language Proficiency Reading Passages subtest, revealed a range of scores on the DARC, that yes‐no answers were valid indicators of respondents’ thinking, and that the Spanish and English versions of the DARC were comparable. The third study, carried out with 521 Spanish‐speaking students in kindergarten through grade 3, confirmed that different comprehension processes assessed by the DARC (text memory, text inferencing, background knowledge, and knowledge integration) could be measured independently, and that DARC scores were less strongly related to word reading than Woodcock‐Johnson comprehension scores. By minimizing the need for high levels of English oral proficiency or decoding ability, the DARC has the potential to reflect the central comprehension processes of second‐language readers of English more effectively than other measures.

Issues of literacy development are a major source of worry to American educators. Worries about whether U.S. children read well enough emerge every time results of an international comparison are published. Many of the provisions of the No Child Left Behind legislation are directed toward more stringent assessment and more effective instruction in literacy. Concerns about school readiness have led to interest in the quality of preschool programs, to the expansion of preschool programs designed as prevention or intervention efforts for children of low-income parents, and to movements toward publicly financed kindergarten classrooms for four-year-olds, to provide more time for children to acquire the skills they need for school. Is all this attention really justified? What kinds of literacy skills do young children possess, and what is the evidence that those levels are unsatisfactory? The focus of this chapter is literacy, in particular a consideration of the many and varied child capacities that have been identified as related to literacy outcomes among children under the age of eight. The argument I will make is that conceptions of literacy, and definitions of what counts as literacy, vary enormously, and that those varying conceptions are reflected a) in divergent claims about how well children are doing, b) in differing conclusions about whether some early childhood accomplishments really matter to later literacy development, c) in differing foci for the design of early childhood education and intervention programs, and d) in varying emphases on skills selected for inclusion in the assessment of literacy in the early childhood period. I start with a brief description of children’s literacy development—what the mythical ‘average child’ can do at ages up through grade three. Then I turn to a description of the disagreements among literacy researchers, the issues that divide them and that lead them to differing conceptions of literacy itself. I elaborate those differences by describing how they shape their advocates’ answers to key questions about the central topics of interest: preschool literacy accomplishments, precursors to later literacy development, design of prevention/intervention programs, and assessment.

Time to Act, a 2009 report of the Carnegie Corporation’s Council on Advancing Adolescent Literacy, concludes that U.S. students are ill-prepared for the literacy challenges of 21st century higher education, employment, and citizenship. The poor performance of U.S. high schoolers in international comparisons contrasts sharply with the relatively good performance of U.S. 4th graders. The success of 4th graders, and indeed the recent rise in 4th grade NAEP scores, is believed to reflect the success of federal and state policies focused on primary literacy. It seems we have learned to teach students to read at the 4th grade level without preparing them for subsequent literacy challenges. As a result, a high proportion of middle and high school students are struggling. These strugglers are overrepresented in urban districts, among students living below the poverty line, and among ethnic and linguistic minorities. Improving reading for understanding in the post-primary grades requires exposing students who read at all levels to new instructional elements that focus on higher-order comprehension skills (e.g., analysis, synthesis, critique, problem-solving). To target these higher order skills, teachers need (1) a better understanding of the component skills required and how they develop, (2) a set of digestible instructional activities that, if well executed, build these skills, and (3) opportunities to learn the classroom discussion procedures that support student progress. High quality discussions are critical to three basic components of reading comprehension: perspective-taking, complex reasoning, and academic language skill. Word Generation (WG) is a research-based vocabulary program for middle school students designed to teach words through language arts, math, science, and social studies classes. The program consists of weekly units that introduce 5 high-utility target words through brief passages designed to spark active examination and discussion of contemporary issues. WG was designed with the understanding that promoting classroom discussion can result in particular kinds of academic benefits, such as improved word knowledge, reasoning, and expression. The IES funded evaluation of WG (as part of the Reading for Understanding initiative) is a school-level experimental study that includes two cohorts of schools randomized to treatment and control conditions. The first cohort has been studied for three years and the second cohort for two years; we present findings after the end of the 2nd year of the study and at the end of the 3rd year of the study