The Limits of Empire: The Qing-Gurkha War and China’s Trans-Himalayan Frontier, 1788–1793

Abstract

This dissertation investigates the Qing-Gurkha War (1788–1793) to provide insights into the Qing empire’s presence in the trans-Himalayan frontier, its administration of Tibet, and the limits of its influence in the late 18th century. The conflict was triggered by repeated Gurkha incursions from modern-day Nepal into Tibet, which was under Qing protection. In response, the Qing launched two military campaigns, the latter of which aimed to conquer Nepal. Qing forces, comprised of elite units from across the empire, eventually occupied northern areas of the Kathmandu Valley and declared victory. However, the Qing ultimately decided to relinquish these territorial acquisitions, opting instead to integrate Nepal into its tributary system of diplomacy and focus on strengthening control over Tibet while severing its connections with South Asia. The study revolves around a central question concerning the limits of empire: What factors prevented the Qing empire from conquering Nepal and led to its withdrawal from trans-Himalayan affairs? The research reveals the tension between the Qing’s territorial-based assertions of sovereignty and the inherent limitations within its institutions for controlling the Tibetan frontier. It also highlights the stark contrast between the Qing’s strong claims over Tibet and its limited knowledge, low state capacity, and lack of a coherent frontier policy in the region, which hindered its ambitions in the trans-Himalayan frontier. The Qing-Gurkha War catalyzed the Qing’s engagement with the trans-Himalayan network, a time-honored, locally-contingent transregional system encompassing mobility, politics, diplomacy, and economic ties. This unfamiliar and complex interweaving of connections posed formidable challenges to the established borderland institutions and modus operandi of conquest characterizing the Qing, marking a turning point in the empire’s trajectory. The dissertation represents an empirical study that seeks to challenge prevailing narratives regarding the Qing-Tibet relationship, critiquing triumphalist interpretations of Qing rule in Tibet, often reliant on paradigms such as patron-and-priest relationships, hegemony, or suzerainty. Engaging with fields including empire studies, frontiers and borderlands, Qing-Tibet relations, and transnational history, this study leverages a diverse range of primary sources, including original archives, court records, official military annals, and gazetteers composed in multiple languages. Through this research, the dissertation meticulously reconstructs the intricate details of the Qing-Gurkha War and the decision-making processes within the Qing government, providing a nuanced understanding of Qing imperialism and its manifestations in the Tibetan frontier. This dissertation critically examines the intrinsic characteristics of the institutional framework that governed the Qing empire’s encounters with the trans-Himalayan region on various levels. It endeavors to restore agency not only to imperial agents but also to local Tibetan societies, while accounting for the impact of historical contingencies. The chapters delve deeply into four key domains, offering insights into the delicate equilibrium between the Qing empire’s expansionist ambitions and the constraints it confronted. These domains encompass logistics and transportation, foreign relations and diplomacy, bureaucracy and institutional structure, and the economic dimension.